N E P T p-ISSN: 0972-6268 ature nvironment and ollution echnology (Print copies up to 2016) An International Quarterly Scientific Journal Vol. 23 No. 2 pp. 899-909 2024 e-ISSN: 2395-3454 Original Research Paper Orightitnpasl: /R/deosi.eoargrc/1h0 .P46a4p8e8r/NEPT.2024.v23i02.025 Open Access Journal Seasonal Variability of Water Quality for Human Consumption in the Tilacancha Conduction System, Amazonas, Peru Jaris Veneros*(**) , Llandercita Cuchca Ramos*(***) , Malluri Goñas*(****) , Eli Morales***** , Erick Auquiñivín-Silva****** , Manuel Oliva* and Ligia García*† *Instituto de Investigación para el Desarrollo Sustentable de Ceja de Selva, Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza de Amazonas, Chachapoyas 01001, Perú **Department of Ecology, Montana State University, 1156-1174 S 11th Ave, Bozeman, Montana 59715, USA ***Instituto de Investigación en Ingeniería Ambiental (INAM), Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza de Amazonas, Chachapoyas 01001, Perú ****Centro Experimental Yanayacu, Dirección de Supervisión y Monitoreo en las Estaciones Experimentales Agrarias, Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria (INIA), Carretera Jaén San Ignacio KM 23.7, Jaén 06801, Cajamarca, Perú *****Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Aplicadas, Universidad Nacional Intercultural Fabiola Salazar Leguía de Bagua, Bagua, Perú ******Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza de Amazonas, Chachapoyas 01001, Perú †Corresponding author: Ligia García; ligia.garcia@untrm.edu.pe ABSTRACT Nat. Env. & Poll. Tech. Website: www.neptjournal.com This study evaluated the seasonal variability of water quality in the Tilacancha River, the water source that supplies Chachapoyas, and the rural communities of Levanto and San Isidro Received: 08-09-2023 del Maino of Perú. Eighteen physical, chemical, and microbiological water parameters were Revised: 29-10-2023 evaluated at five sampling points in two seasons (rainy and dry). To determine water quality, the Accepted: 08-11-2023 results obtained for the parameters evaluated were compared with the Maximum Permissible Key Words: Limits (MPL) established in the Regulation on Water Quality for Human Consumption (DS Nº Water quality 031-2010-SA), approved by the Environmental Health Directorate of the Ministry of Health. Microbiological parameters In addition, a Pearson correlation was performed to estimate the correlation between the Physical parameters variables evaluated. The results showed that microbiological parameters exceeded the -1 Chemical parameters MPLs in both periods evaluated, such as the case of total coliforms (44 MPN.100 mL ), -1 -1 Maximum permissible limits fecal coliforms (25 MPN.100 mL ), and E. coli (5.45 MPN.100 mL ), these microbiological parameters reported a positive correlation with turbidity, temperature, total dissolved solids, and flow rate. In addition, aluminum (Al) and manganese (Mn) exceeded the MPL in the rainy (0.26 mg Al.L-1) and dry (1.41 mg.Mn-1.L-1) seasons, respectively. The results indicated that the water of the Tilacancha River is not suitable for human consumption. Therefore, it must be treated in drinking water treatment plants to be used as drinking water. INTRODUCTION negative impacts on the water resources (Messerli et al. 2004). Therefore, the studies of mountain water systems and Population growth and economic development have affected the quantity and quality of the water sources that supply the inclusion of the population settled in the lowlands are of human beings (Tognelli et al. 2016). However, mountain great relevance since 7% of these ecosystems provide water ecosystems represent large water reserves. They are exposed resources and 37% other environmental services (Formica et to high human pressure, which threatens the supply of this al. 2015). In addition, the alterations that may occur in the elemental liquid for its different uses (Wiegandt 2008). headwaters of river basins have repercussions in the lower parts Therefore, anthropic activity is one of the main causes of the basin (Pino et al. 2017) and result in the degradation of of damage to the hydrogeomorphological quality of river water resources, climate, hydrological conditions, ecosystems, systems (Rojas-Briceño et al. 2020). The high vulnerability and soils, among others (Perez et al. 2018). to water scarcity can lead to the forced migration of millions The Tilacancha Private Conservation Area (PCA) of people or the overexploitation of these ecosystems, causing is home to the Tilacancha and Cruzhuayco sub-basins, 900 Jaris Veneros et al. two important sources of water supply, for the city of vulnerability to the impacts of climate change on the quantity Chachapoyas, which has a population of approximately 32 and quality of water resources. The national government 589 inhabitants as of 2017 and for the surrounding rural promotes key decisions to counteract these threats to human communities (Arellanos 2018, Lucich et al. 2014, Salas et al. health, damage to ecosystems, and economic development 2018). In addition, the Tilacancha PCA provides important (Aquino 2017). ecosystem services related to the provisioning and regulation Peru also has two regulations for drinking water of water quantity and quality; this provisioning service consumption. The first is the D.S N° 004-2017-MINAM, depends on precipitation, horizontal catchment of remnant which approves the Environmental Quality Standards forests and grasslands, surface runoff, and aquifers, while (ECA) for water (MINAM 2017), and the second is the quality and quantity regulation services will depend on the Regulation of Water Quality for Human Consumption soil structures through which water percolates and on the D.S N° 031-2010-SA (MINSA 2010), The first standard storage capacity of the soil, respectively (Seitz 2015). establishes the requirements to be met by water bodies The PCA land cover, which is represented by 74.5% according to the category of use designated by the National grassland, 14.8% forest, 5.2% shrubland, and 4.1% pine Water Authority (ANA), while the second establishes the forest, is being threatened by deforestation, grassland Maximum Permissible Limits (MPL) for microbiological, burning, agriculture, and cattle ranching (CONDESAN 2014) parasitological, organoleptic, organic and inorganic chemical since deforestation rate of 2.06% has been reported in recent and radioactive parameters for human consumption water. years (Salas et al. 2018). In addition, it was reported that the This standard was promulgated to ensure the safety of water, presence of livestock grazing (cattle, horses), wild animals, prevent health risk factors, and promote the health and well- and land use changes contribute to coliforms and sediments being of the population. in the river water (Arellanos 2018). In addition, EMUSAP Considering that the quality of water designated for S.R.L (Municipal Company for Drinking Water and human consumption should be controlled and monitored Sewerage Services, Chachapoyas, Amazonas) measurements by measuring physical, chemical, and microbiological of the amount of water or water flow in recent years report parameters (Morales et al. 2019) since they offer multiple that the rate of water flow has been decreasing (Lucich et advantages as quality indicators due to their ease of al. 2014). Given this scenario, in 2013, EMUSAP, with quantification (Baque-Miite et al. 2016). This study aimed the support of the National Superintendence of Sanitation to determine the seasonal variability of water quality for Services (SUNASS), developed the Mechanisms of Rewards human consumption, characterizing and comparing 18 for Ecosystem Services (MRSE) in the Tilacancha PCA physicochemical and microbiological parameters from five to achieve efficiency in the integrated management of the sampling points established along the Tilacancha River and basin and to serve as a means of compensation through the water conduction system to the city of Chachapoyas projects and actions for the rural communities of Levanto during the months of February (rainy season) and August and Maino, for the conservation of water bodies (Lucich et (dry season) of 2020. al. 2014); therefore, EMUSAP S.R.L. has been investing in activities oriented to the implementation of programs aimed MATERIALS AND METHODS at education and training for the conservation of natural resources (SUNASS 2015). Study Area On the other hand, water quality is a key determinant The Tilacancha PCA is located in the Central Andes of of human well-being and is closely related to health and South America, in the Páramo ecoregion of the Cordillera economic growth (Baque-Miite et al. 2016, Villena 2018). Central, covering the lands of the Levanto and San Isidro del This is essential for countries to establish measures and Maino Rural Communities (Fig.1) and this PCA is located strategies to achieve sustainable development, taking into at altitudes ranging from 2650 to 3491 meters above sea account the sanitary situation of the population and the level and covers an area of 6 800.48 hectares, occupying protection of water bodies for their different uses (Villena 4% of the total territory of the Amazon region (Salas et 2018). Thus, for the quality control of drinking water, several al. 2018). It was recognized as a PCA on July 6, 2010, by countries have adopted or developed standards and tools Ministerial Resolution N° 118-2010-MINAM, conserving based on the determination of concentrations of physical, the upper parts of the Tilacancha and Cruzhuayco sub- chemical, and microbiological parameters provided by the basins, the mountainous grasslands, the montane forests, World Health Organization (WHO) (Rodriguez-Alvarez and the biological diversity, which contribute to the et al. 2017). Peru is one of the countries with the greatest adequate management and functioning of the Yuyac - Osmal Vol. 23, No. 2, 2024 • Nature Environment and Pollution Technology This publication is licensed under a Creative This publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Commons Attribution 4.0 International License SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF WATER QUALITY FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION 901 watershed, guaranteeing ecosystem services over time and 54 mm/month, with August being the month with the least contributing to sustainable development (Lucich et al. 2014). rainfall (CONDESAN 2014). According to the National Meteorological and Samples and Sampling Hydrological Service of Peru (SENAMHI), the climate of the Tilacancha PCA varies from very humid to cold temperate, Samples were collected in February 2019 and August 2020. generally rainy (Salas et al. 2018), the average annual For this purpose, five sampling points were established, temperature ranges between 12 °C and 17 °C and the average four of them in the Tilacancha River section, including annual rainfall is 850 mm; however, rainfall records are not the catchment, and one at the end of the water conduction regular throughout the year, the months of October to April line that reaches the city of Chachapoyas (Fig. 1). The correspond to a rainy period with an average rainfall of 100 selection of the sampling points was carri6e odf o23u t taking into mm/month, w hile in June to September rainfall decreases to account the Protocol for Monitoring the Sanitary Quality Fig. 1: Tilacancha PCA location. Fig. 1: Tilacancha PCA location. Samples and Sampling This publication is licensed under a Creative This publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Nature Environment and Pollution Technology • Vol. 23, No. 2, 2024 Samples were collected in February 2019 and August 2020. For this purpose, five sampling points were established, four of them in the Tilacancha River section, including the catchment, and one at the end of the water conduction line that reaches the city of Chachapoyas (Fig. 1). The selection of the sampling points was carried out taking into account the Protocol for Monitoring the Sanitary Quality of Surface Water Resources, Directorial Resolution N° 2254-2007-DIGESA (DIGESA 902 Jaris Veneros et al. of Surface Water Resources, Directorial Resolution N° sensors and/or contaminate the samples, which could alter 2254-2007-DIGESA (DIGESA 2007) with appropriate the results. For this purpose, the pH sensor also measures the Quality assurance (QA)/quality control (QC) procedures and T° at the same time, and the EC was placed in the samples appropriate standards used for calibration (Konieczka 2007). collected in a container previously rinsed directly on the In addition, the location of the sampling points was surface of the water of the Tilacancha River; the method determined according to three criteria: i) Identification: the recommended in the Protocol for monitoring the sanitary sites were located so that they were easily identifiable using quality of surface water resources approved whit Directorial the Satellite Positioning System (GPS) and recording their Resolution N° 2254-2007-DIGESA (DIGESA 2007). UTM coordinates (Table 1); ii) Accessibility: these points The physicochemical parameters of Total dissolved solids were located in places of quick and easy access to collect (mg.L-1), Chlorides (mg.Cl-1.L-1), Hardness (mg CaCO3/l), the samples; iii) Representativeness: taking into account the Ammonium (mg.N-1.L-1), Iron (mg.Fe-1.L-1), Manganese (mg. characteristics of the environment, vegetation cover and the Mn-1.L-1), Aluminum (mg.Al-1.L-1), Copper (mg.Cu-1.L-1), Zinc existence of possible factors that influence water quality. (mg.Zn-1.L-1), Sodium (mg.Na-1.L-1), mg.Fe-1.L-1, (mg.Mn- 1.L-1), Sulfates (mg.SO4-1 -1Points PM1, PM2, and PM3 were located along the .L ), as well as the microbiological Tilacancha River, with a minimum separation distance evaluation of Total coliforms (MPN.100 mL -1 a 35ºC ), -1 of 1 km (Prat et al. 2012). Point PM4 was located in Fecal coliforms (MPN.100 mL a 44,5ºC ), Escherichia coli -1 the water catchment area outside the Tilacacha private (MPN.100 mL a 44,5ºC), were determined according to the conservation area, and point PM5 was located at the end methodology by APHA, AWWA, and WEF (American Public of the water conduction line, located before the entrance to Health Association 1999, Walter 1961). For the total dissolved the Chachapoyas Drinking Water Treatment Plant (DWTP) solids, the total dried solids were used. The Turbidity (UNT) (Table 1). was determined with the Nephelometric Method, following EPA specifications (EPA 1970). The samples were collected following the methodology established in the Protocol of procedures for sampling, Data Analysis preservation, conservation, transport, storage, and reception of water for human consumption, as outlined in the Directorial Data analysis was performed by applying the relativization Resolution of the Ministry of Health 160-2015-DIGESA-SA function (Equation 1), transforming the values of the various (DIGESA 2015). physicochemical and microbiological parameters to a scale ranging from 0 to 1 (Sepúlveda 2008). Analysis of Physicochemical and Equation 1 Microbiological Parameters 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥−𝑚𝑚 , A total of 18 parameters were considered and chosen, taking 𝑀𝑀−𝑚𝑚 into of the Supreme Decree DS N° 031-2010-SA (MINSA Where: 2010). The parameters of pH, T° (°C), and EC (μS.cm-1) were measured in the field. They were performed following x: Corresponding value of the variable for a given unit the Protocol for monitoring the sanitary quality of surface of analysis at a given period. water resources, approved by Directorial Resolution N° m: Minimum value of the variable in each period. 2254-2007-DIGESA (DIGESA 2007). A Multiparameter M: Maximum value of the variable in each period. was used (Hanna, HI 98194), previously inspected to verify its maintenance and calibration. At the time of measurement, This function made it possible to visualize the behavior of surgical gloves were used to avoid direct contact with the the parameters in the rainy and low water seasons concerning the Maximum Permissible Limits established in the Table 1: UTM coordinates sampling points. regulation by DS N°031-2010-SA. Likewise, a comparison PM UTM coordinates Altitude (masl) of the averages of each parameter was made with the same Zone East North regulations and for the same purpose. PM1 18 189394 9298678 2939 In addition, the results of physicochemical and PM2 18 189112 9299257 2947 microbiological characteristics were presented in summary PM3 18 188973 9299381 2946 tables with mean values and coefficients of variation. The water flow results were subjected to a mean comparison test PM4 18 188898 9299661 2941 using Student’s t-test to determine the significance of the PM5 18 183468 9309339 2463 flow by year of evaluation. Finally, a Pearson correlation was Vol. 23, No. 2, 2024 • Nature Environment and Pollution Technology This publication is licensed under a Creative This publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Commons Attribution 4.0 International License SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF WATER QUALITY FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION 903 performed in the R software 4.3.1, which made it possible to Table 2: Physical-chemical characteristics of the water in the drinking evaluate the relationship between the physicochemical and water supply system. microbiological parameters and the flow rate for the rainy Variables Seasons MPL and dry seasons, with significance values of 0.05. The ranges Rainy Dry for interpreting the correlation were 0 to 0.3 (0 to -0.3) weak Mean CV % Mean CV % linear relationship, 0.3 to 0.7 (-0.3 to -0.7) moderate linear pH 8.38 0.02 7.70 0.01 6,5-8.5 relationship, and 0.7 to 1 (-0.7 to -1) strong linear relationship (Ratner 2009). T° 13.70 0.06 12.70 0.07 ** Turbidities 1.25 0.60 0.77 0.25 5 NTU RESULTS EC 55.40 0.03 89.78 0.03 1500 μS.cm-1 TDS 24.85 0.01 43.80 0.03 1000 mg.L-1 Physicochemical and Microbiological Characteristics Chlorides 3.11 0.68 7.26 0.24 250 mg.L-1 of Drinking Water in the Pipeline System as a Function of the Sampling Period Hardness 33.79 0.07 49.35 0.11 500 mg CaCO .L-13 According to Table 2, the results show that none of the Sulfates 0.00 0.00 4.23 0.65 250 mg.L-1 physicochemical parameters exceed the MPLs established in Ammonium 0.02 0.00 0.12 1.76 1.5 mg N.L-1 the DS N° 031-2010-SA in any of the seasons in which the Aluminum 0.26* 0.31 0.17 0.19 0.2 mg.L-1 water samples were taken. As for pH, it is higher during the Copper 0.01 0.48 0.01 0.25 2 mg.L-1 rainy season (8.38), as is temperature (13.70 °C) and turbidity Iron 0.11 0.11 0.08 0.22 0.3 mg.L-1 (3.70 UNT). Electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, -1 chlorides, and hardness were higher in the dry season with Manganese 0.01 0.34 1.41* 0.50 0.4 mg.L -1 values of 100.70 μS.cm-1, 43.80 mg.L-1, 7.26 mg Cl.L-1, and Sodium 1.90 0.03 2.57 0.16 200 mg.L 49.35 mg CaCO3.L-1, respectively. Sulfate and ammonium Zinc 0.01 0.73 0.04 0.16 3.0 mg.L-1 concentrations were also higher in the dry season, with 4.23 * Indicates values that exceed the Maximum Permissible Limits estab- mg SO .L-14 and 0.12 mg N.L -1, respectively. lished in the Regulation (DS N° 031-2010-SA). Concerning to higher concentrations of iron were reported ** The parameter does not apply according to the regulation (DS N° in the rainy season with 0.11 mg Fe.L-1 031-2010-SA). , and in the dry season, higher concentrations of sodium and zinc were reported with -1 -1 value is 0, while the other parameters are within the LMP 2.57 mg Na.L and 0.04 mg Zn.L respectively, the opposite or standard value 1. occurred with copper, which remained stable in both seasons with 0.01 mg Cu.L-1. Tilacancha River Water Flow Record Aluminum (Al) and manganese (Mn) concentrations Table 4 shows the historical water flow data of the Tilacancha exceed the MPLs during rainy (0.26 mg Al.L-1) and dry River by EMUSAP S.R.L. for the years 2009 to 2013 (1.41 mg Mn.L-1) periods, respectively, since according to (Lucich et al. 2014). T In the development of the present DS N° 031-2010-SA, Al, and Mn concentrations should investigation, the water flow for the year 2020 was also not exceed 0.2 mg Al.L-1 and 0.4 mg Mn.L-1, respectively. taken, these data were taken from the same sampling points Within the microbiological parameters of the Tilacancha river water in the two study periods, such as total Table 3: Microbiological characteristics of the water in the drinking water coliforms, fecal coliforms, and E. coli, the results exceeded supply system the MPL established in the DS N° 031-2010-SA, and 48.50, Variables Seasons MPL 49 and 24 MPN.100 mL-1 of water were found, respectively. Rainy Dry These values exceed the established in the DS, which Meam CV % Meam CV % determines that it should be less than <1.8 MPN.100 mL-1 Total 48.5* 0.45 25.6* 0.99 <1.8 MPN.100 (Table 3). coliforms mL-1 Fig. 2 shows the relationship between the values of the Fecal 49* 0.40 25* 1.10 <1.8 MPN.100 physicochemical and microbiological parameters concerning coliforms mL-1 the MPL established in the DS N° 031-2010-SA in the two E. coli 5.45* 0.58 24* 1.10 <1.8 MPN.100 -1 study stations, using the relativization function (Equation 1); mL the graph shows that the concentration of microbiological * Indicates values that exceed the Maximum Permissible Limits estab- parameters visibly exceeds the LMP whose standardized lished in the Regulation (DS N° 031-2010-SA). This publication is licensed under a Creative This publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Nature Environment and Pollution Technology • Vol. 23, No. 2, 2024 11 of 23 Table 3: Microbiological characteristics of the water in the drinking water supply system Seasons Variables Rainy Dry MPL Meam CV % Meam CV % Total 48.5* 0.45 25.6* 0.99 <1.8 MPN.100 mL-1 coliforms Fecal <1.8 MPN.100 mL-1 coliforms 49* 0.40 25* 1.10 E. coli 5.45* 0.58 24* 1.10 <1.8 MPN.100 mL-1 * Indicates values that exceed the Maximum Permissible Limits established in the Regulation (DS N° 031-2010-SA). Fig. 2 shows the relationship between the values of the physicochemical and microbiological parameters concerning the MPL established in the DS N° 031-2010-SA in the two study stations, using the relativization function (Equation 1); the graph shows that the concentration of microbiological parameters visibly exceeds the LMP whose standardized value is 0, while the other9 p0a4rameters are within the LMP or standard valueJ 1ar. is Veneros et al. Fig. 2: Level of the relationship of the physicochemical and microbiological Fig. 2: Level of the relationship of the physicochemical and microbiological parameters concerning the MPLs established in the DS. N° 031-2010-SA that were foundp abraemfoertee rtsh ceo tnrceeartnminegn tt hpel aMnPt.L Ts heest ahbislitsohreicda iln thep DosSit. iNve° c0o3r1r-e2l0a1ti0o-nS Aw ith E. coli and a moderate correlation water flow of the river reports that in 2009, it had the highest with chlorides and a strong negative correlation with Na. 3 -1 Tilacfalow3nc -h (2 1a . 5R2i8v emr W.s a)t,e fro lFlolowwed R beyc o2r0d11 and 2012 with 1.989 3 -1, EC was strongly positively correlated with TDS, m .s and 1.727 m .s respectively. However, there were no TC, FC, Al, Cu, Mn, Zn, and flow rate and had a strong significant differences between the years evaluated. On the negative correlation with E. coli. TDS was strongly other hand, for the 2020 year of execution of this research, 3 -1 positively correlated with TC, FC, Al, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, the lowest water flow value was reported (0.19485 m .s ) flow and negatively correlated with chlorides and E. coli. for the rainy season (February) with 0.28 m 3.s-1 and the dry 3 -1 Chlorides had a strong positive correlation only with E. season (August) with a flow of 0.11 m .s . coli and a strong negative correlation only with Na. In Correlation Level of the Physicochemical, addition, microbiological parameters such as TC and FC Microbiological, and Flow Characteristics of the had a strong positive correlation with Al, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Tilacancha River and flow rate; E. coli, on the other hand, presented a strong negative correlation with Mn, Na, and flow rate. Finally, Fig. 3 shows the level of correlation between the Aluminum, Copper, Iron, Manganese, Sodium, and Zinc physicochemical and microbiological characteristics and presented a positive correlation between them, generally the water flow of the Tilacancha River during the rainy a strong and moderate one. It should be noted that sulfates season. The pH is strongly positively correlated (blue color and ammonium had values of 0, which means that there is and diagonal to the right) with hardness and Na. At the no linear correlation with any of the parameters. same time, the presence of chlorine has a moderate negative Fig. 4 shows the correlation between the physicochemical correlation (orange color and diagonal to the left) with the and microbiological characteristics and water flow of other parameters such as T°, turbidity, EC, TC, FC, E. coli, the Tilacancha River during the low water season. The and flow rate, with a strong negative correlation (red color pH showed a strong correlation and a moderate negative and diagonal to the left). correlation with hardness, sulfates, Cu, Fe, Zn, flow, The temperature (T°) correlated strongly negatively turbidity, chlorides, ammonium, TC, CF, E. coli, and Al. with TDS, TC, FC, Zn, Fe, and Al. Turbidity has a strong The same was true for T°, which presented a strong negative Vol. 23, No. 2, 2024 • Nature Environment and Pollution Technology This publication is licensed under a Creative This publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Commons Attribution 4.0 International License SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF WATER QUALITY FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION 905 Table 4: Tilacancha River flow record for the years 2009-2020. Months Caudales [m3.s-1] 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2020 January 0.338 1.229 1.672 1.316 1.419 February 2.447 1.808 0.766 2.694 4.341 0.2835 March 2.174 1.261 4.043 2.337 2.532 April 12.341 1.108 1.874 1.733 0.886 May 2.434 1.542 8.937 1.495 1.172 June 1.872 0.945 0.946 6.809 0.978 July 1.319 0.424 0.700 0.547 0.784 August 1.211 0.324 0.210 0.279 2.088 0.1062 September 0.795 0.650 0.290 1.051 0.781 October 1.814 0.494 2.395 1.034 0.639 November 1.516 0.675 1.308 0.794 0.498 December 1.074 1.141 0.997 0.639 0.666 Minimum 0.795 0.324 0.210 0.279 0.498 Average 2.528 a 0.967 a 1.989 a 1.727 a 1.399 a 01.149 o4f8 253 a Maximum 12.341 1.808 8.937 6.809 4.341 Note: The same letters do not report significant statistical differences according to the Student’s t-test p ≤ 0.05. Fig. 3: CFoirgre. la3t:io Cn oofr rtheel apthiyosnic oocfh etmheic aplh aynds imcoiccrohbeiomloigciacall acnhar(?d: acterist nmo idcartao ics a ).b io nldo gwiactearl f lcohwa orfa cthtee Triislatcicansc haan Rd ivwera dteurri nfglo thwe roafin y season correlationt hwe iTthi laCcea nacnhda T RDivSe. rT duurrbiindgi ttyh es hroawineyd s eaa sstornon (g? : noL dikaetaw)i.s e, chlorides presented a strong and moderate positive positive correlation with Zn and a negative correlation correlation with hardness, sulfates, ammonium, Al, Fe, Na, with Mn. FTihge. 4o pshpooswitse t hwea cso trrrueel aftoior nC bee tawnede nT DthSe, pwhyhsicicho cheamndi cflaol wan rdat me, iacsr odbidio hlaorgdinceasls c, hwahraicchte arlissoti pcsre asnedn ted a strong showed a strong and moderate positive correlation with each and moderate positive correlation with sulfates, ammonium, other and wwaitthe rT fClo, wC Fo, fE t.h ceo lTi,i lMacna,n cahmam Roniviuemr ,d uanridn gF et.h e lAowl, Cwua, tFeer, saenads folno.w T rhatee .pH showed a strong This publication is licensed under a Creative This publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Comcmonsr rAtetrilbautioino 4n.0 Intaernadtio nal L icmensoe derate negative correlaNtaiotunr ew Eintvhi rohnamrdennets asn, ds Puolfllautteios,n TCeuc,h nFoelo, gZyn •, Vfollo. w23,, No. 2, 2024 turbidity, chlorides, ammonium, TC, CF, E. coli, and Al. The same was true for T°, which presented a strong negative correlation with Ce and TDS. Turbidity showed a strong positive correlation with Zn and a negative correlation with Mn. The opposite was true for Ce and TDS, which showed a strong and moderate positive correlation with each other and with TC, CF, E. coli, Mn, ammonium, and Fe. Likewise, chlorides presented a strong and moderate positive correlation with hardness, sulfates, ammonium, Al, Fe, Na, and flow rate, as did hardness, which also presented a strong and moderate positive correlation with sulfates, ammonium, Al, Cu, Fe, and flow rate. Sulfates, on the other hand, had a strong positive correlation with parameters such as Al, Cu, Fe, Zn, and flow rate and only presented a moderate negative correlation with Mn. Ammonium was 906 Jaris Veneros et al. Sulfates, on the other hand, had a strong positive et al. 2019) and may be different between rainy and dry correlation with parameters such as Al, Cu, Fe, Zn, and flow seasons (Baque-Miite et al. 2016). This is because rainfall rate and only presented a moderate negative correlation with performs different mechanical and chemical processes such Mn. Ammonium was strongly positively correlated with as erosion, hydration, hydrolysis, and oxide reduction that all microbiological parameters, Fe, and flow rate. These promote flooding, runoff, washing of soils, weathering of microbiological parameters (TC, FC, and E. coli) were rocks, and influence the discharge of wastewater (Espinal strongly positively correlated with each other and with Fe. et al. 2013, Morales et al. 2019). The composition of water, Finally, the Aluminum, Copper, Iron, Manganese, or its physical, chemical, and microbiological constituents, Sodium, and Zinc had a strong positive correlation with Na will depend fundamentally on the material through which it and flow, as did Cu with Zn and Fe. flows and with which it comes into contact (Formica et al. 2015, Pino et al. 2017), the seasonal period and sampling DISCUSSION depth levels (Leiva-Tafur et al. 2022). For sustainable development, water quality is a determining The pH of the water ranged from 8.38 during the rainy 15 of 23 factor that needs to be permanently monitored to avoid season to 7.70 during the dry season, which suggests that possible threats to people’s health (Salvador et al. there is no notable variation in pH regarding the season, and 2020). Therefore, the study of 18 physicochemical and the values reported are within the range prescribed in the strongly positively correlated with all microbMiolPoLgsic oafl DpaSr aNm°e0t3e1r-s2, 0F1e0,- SaAnd ( bfelotwwe erna t6e..5 Ttoh e8s.e5 microbiological parameters of the Tilacancha River and ). If the the water conduct value is higher than the permitted MPL, it would negatively microiobni ollionge ifcoarl Cpahraacmhaepteorysa s(T inC ,t wFoC ,s eaansdo nEs. co (rainy and low water) is based on the theory that the use of a lif)f ewcte raeq ustartoicn glliyfe ,p ocosirtriovseiloyn c coarprealcaitteyd, awnidth s oeailc ha lkalinity indicators suocthh ears apnhdy wsiictohc Fhee.m ical and microbiological (Awoyemi et al. 2014). parameters provide knowledge about the type of water and On the other hand, the values of hardness, total dissolved the various geFoicnhaelmlyi,c athl pe roAcleusmseisn tuhmat, inCfloupepnecre, itI r(oEnls,a yMedan gasnoelsied,s , Saonddi uemlec, traincdal Zcoinncd uhcatidv itay satrreo hnigg hpeor siinti vloew water. et al. 2020). In addition to the quantity and physicochemical These results contrast with the theory that suggests that the and microbiolcoogrircealla qtiuoanli wtyi othf tNhea wanatde rf,l oitw ca, na sb ed iidnf Cluue nwceitdh Znc aonndc eFnetr. ation of these parameters is related to the process by the climate of the area (Espinal et al. 2013, Morales of concentration of the flow of this season (Rodriguez- Fig. 4: CorFreilga.t io4n: oCf ophrryesilcaotcihoenm oicfa lp ahndy smicicorocbhioelmogiiccaall c ahanrdac mteriicstricosb ainodl owgatiecra fll ocwh oafr athcet Teriliasctainccsh aa nRdiv ewr dauterirn gf llooww w oaft etrh seea son. Vol. 23, No. 2, T20il2a4c •an Ncahtau rRe iEvnevri rdounrminegn tl oawnd w Paotlleurt isoena sToecnh. n ology This publication is licensed under a Creative This publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Commons Attribution 4.0 International License DISCUSSION For sustainable development, water quality is a determining factor that needs to be permanently monitored to avoid possible threats to people's health (Salvador et al. 2020). Therefore, the study of 18 physicochemical and microbiological parameters of the Tilacancha River and the water conduction line for Chachapoyas in two seasons (rainy and low water) is based on the theory that the use of indicators such as physicochemical and microbiological parameters provide knowledge about the type of water and the various geochemical processes that influence it (Elsayed et al. SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF WATER QUALITY FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION 907 Alvarez et al. 2017). In addition, the electrical conductivity River may be because there are no mining and industrial may decrease during wet periods due to the dilution of salts activities in the area, and it is only influenced by the (Akindele et al. 2013). However, the high values of electrical mineralogical characteristics of the soil; the quality of the conductivity reflect high values of sodium and chlorides for riparian forest and the heterogeneity of the fluvial habitat is the dry season, as was found in the results of this research one of the key factors to explain the variability of the water (Awoyemi et al. 2014). characteristics of the high Andean rivers (Villamarín et al. In the case of sulfate and ammonium concentration in 2014). In addition, the high concentration of sodium in the the waters of the Tilacancha River, values are within the Tilacancha River in the two studied periods (1.90 to 2.57 mg -1 range of 250 mg SO .L-1 and 1.5 mg N.L-1 of the MPL Na.L rain and low water, respectively) may be the result of 4 allowed by the DS N° 031-2010-SA were reported; this the weathering of silicate minerals in the rocks (1.90 to 2.57 -1 could be because sulfates in natural waters are found in low mg Na.L rain and low water, respectively) (Formica et al. concentrations coming from the leaching of sulfide minerals 2015), since there is no anthropogenic sodium contamination where sulfur is oxidized forming sulfates and increase their around the river. concentration when there is contamination, generally due to Concerning the metals that exceeded the LMP, such as mining activities. (Awoyemi et al. 2014, Gómez et al. 2004). manganese, with 1.41 mg Mn.L-1 in the dry season, and -1 On the other hand, concerning the concentrations of aluminum, with 0.26 mg Al.L in the rainy season may be microbiological parameters (total coliforms, fecal coliforms, due to the soil textural classes of the PCA, where sandy and and ), exceeding the MPLs makes the Tilacancha clay soils predominate (Pereyra-Cachay 2020). In addition, E. coli River a river with water unfit for human consumption; this surface waters in contact with sandstone, silicate, limestone, may be due to the livestock activities carried out in the area, and dolomite rocks accumulate aluminum, manganese, threatening the conservation of the PCA and contributing and iron (Ifatimehin & Ojochenemi 2021) because the pollutants to the water that diminish its quality (Seitz 2015). decomposition of organic matter eliminates dissolved Microbiological parameters reported higher concentrations in oxygen and generates carbon dioxide, causing manganese the rainy season or February, which shows that precipitation and iron to be incorporated as soluble compounds (Chan et is the most influential factor for the concentration of coliform al. 2022). In the case of soils, the presence of manganese and bacteria (Seo et al. 2019); as runoff washes soils, washes aluminum indicates that they have an acid pH, influenced by sediments, and all kinds of pollutants from livestock farming the fluctuation of climatic factors such as precipitation and into the rivers (Rodriguez-Alvarez et al. 2017), reasons why evapotranspiration, which cause the dissolution of rocks and water turbidity may also increase during the rainy season. minerals (Salinas 1979, Thomas 2015). Although the values of physicochemical parameters are The flow of the Tilacancha River during the rainy lower than the Peruvian regulation DS N° 031-2010-SA, the season was higher than during the dry season, with 0.28 presence of coliform bacteria alone is a qualitative indicator m3.s-1 and 0.11 m3.s-1, respectively, which may show that of contamination, the consequences of which can result in the low rainfall of 54 mm/month in August may influence diseases such as gastroenteritis and diarrhea (Seo et al. 2019). the water level, reducing the flow by between 8 and 14 -1 The accumulat ion and dis t r ibut ion of some L.s (CONDESAN 2014). However, they may also be due physicochemical parameters in freshwater bodies can make to the impacts of climate change, deforestation, and the them potentially dangerous, producing toxicity when they periodic burning of forests and grasslands due to a lack of reach living organisms that make up the food chain (Salas- environmental awareness, which may decrease water supply Mercado et al. 2020). Heavy metal concentrations in the while demand is growing (Lucich et al. 2014). Tilacancha River were reported in the following sequence: The positive correlation between turbidity, temperature, Na > Al > Fe > Cu > Mn > Zn in the rainy season and Na > total dissolved solids, flow rate, total coliform, fecal Mn > Al > Fe > Zn > Cu. This low concentration of these coliform, and E. coli content indicates that the lower the physicochemical parameters, except for aluminum (0.26 mg concentration of turbidity, total dissolved solids, lower Al.L-1) and manganese (1.41 mg Mn.L-1) which reported temperature, and flow rate in the Tilacancha River water, values above the allowed in the LMPs (0.2 mg Al.L-1 and the better the water quality, as the microbiological load 0.4 mg Mn.L-1) in the rainy and dry seasons, respectively, of the water decreases. High water turbidity increases the may indicate that there were no significant effects on the concentration of microorganisms, affecting drinking water suitability of the water for human consumption from the quality (Montoya et al. 2011). The same happens with the Tilacancha River. The low concentrations of aluminum, water temperature since it determines the concentration of copper, iron, manganese, sodium, and zinc in the Tilacancha many parameters. If the T° increases, the chemical reactions This publication is licensed under a Creative This publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Nature Environment and Pollution Technology • Vol. 23, No. 2, 2024 908 Jaris Veneros et al. also increase. Still, the solubility of gases decreases, and destinada al consumo humano en un Cantón de Ecuador. Rev. Cienc. the respiration rate of microorganisms increases, leading Unemi, 9(20): 109-117. Chan, S. S., Shiong-Khoo, K., Wayne-Chew, K., Chuan-Ling, T. and Loke- to higher consumption of oxygen and decomposition of Show, P. 2022. Recent advances biodegradation and biosorption of organic matter (Akindele et al. 2013). Under this scenario, organic compounds from wastewater: microalgae-bacteria consortium contaminated water requires drinking water treatment before - A review. Bioresour. Technol., 344: 126159. doi: 10.1016/j. consumption (Baque-Miite et al. 2016). When physical, biortech.2021.126159. CONDESAN. 2014. DHR report on the Tilacancha River Microbasin. 64 chemical, and microbiological parameters exceed the MPL, DIGESA. 2007. Protocol for Monitoring the Sanitary Quality of Surface intensive and sectorized monitoring of water sources must Water Resources. 21. Ministry of Health. be carried out to determine the sources of contamination DIGESA. 2015. Protocol of Procedures for Sampling, Preservation, (Morales et al. 2019). Conservation, Transport, Storage and Reception of Water for Human Consumption. 23. Elsayed, S., Hussein H., Moghanm F., Khendher, K., Eid, E. and Gad M. CONCLUSIONS 2020. Application of irrigation water quality indices and multivariate statistical techniques for surface water quality assessments in the According to the 18 physico-chemical and microbiological Northern Nile Delta, Egypt. MDPI Water, 12(12): 3-26. https://doi. parameters evaluated, the water from the Tilacancha in the org/10.3390/w12123300. drinking water conveyance system before being treated (at Espinal, T., Sedeño, J. and López, E. 2013. Evaluation of water quality in the Yuriria lagoon, Guanajuato, Mexico, using multivariate techniques: A the DWTP) is not suitable for human consumption from valuation analysis for two periods 2005, 2009-2010. Rev. Int. Contam. the microbiological point of view, both in the rainy and dry Ambient., 29(3): 209-16. seasons, since the bacteria of the Coliform group exceeded Formica, S.M., Andrea-Sacchi, G., Agustina-Campodonico, V., Inés- the MPLs prescribed in the DS N° 031-2010-SA. There is Pasquini, A. and Alejandra-Cioccale, M. 2015. Modeling water quality in mountain rivers with anthropogenic impact. case study: Small a dynamic of positive and negative correlations between mountain range of Córdoba, Argentina. Rev. Int. Contam. Ambient., all parameters, except for sulfates and ammonium, where 31(4): 327-41. there is no linear correlation with any of the parameters. Gómez, A., Villalba, A., Acosta, G., Castañeda, M. and Kamp. D. 2004. These results suggest that the variability of the chemical Heavy metals in the surface water of the San Pedro River during 1997 and 1999. Rev. Int. Contam. Ambient., 20(1): 5-12. composition of the water in the different seasons was altered Ifatimehin, O.O. and Ojochenemi, A. 2021. Kogi State : Environment, by both anthropogenic and/or natural sources surrounding Society and Development. Development, 1: 21. doi: 10.54164/ the water conveyance system. Thus, it is suggested to bk.dgev.2021.1. use this information for water quality management in Konieczka, P. 2007. The role of and the place of method validation in the quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) system. Tilacancha. Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem., 37(3): 173-90. doi: https://https://doi. org/10.1080/10408340701244649. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Leiva-Tafur, D., Goñas, M., Culqui, L., Santa Cruz, C., Rascón, J. and Oliva-Cruz, M. 2022. Spatiotemporal distribution of physicochemical We acknowledge the support given by EMUSAP. parameters and toxic elements in Lake Pomacochas, Amazonas, Peru. Front. Environ. Sci., 10(September). https://doi.org/10.3389/ REFERENCES fenvs.2022.885591Lucich, I., Alvarado, A., Bohorquez, E., Villar, D. and Pineda, R., 2014. Akindele, E., Adeniyi, I. and Indabawa, I. I. 2013. Spatio-temporal Advances in the Regulatory Framework of Remuneration Mechanisms assessment and water quality characteristics of Lake Tiga, Kano, for Hydrological Ecosystem Services: The Case of the Tilacancha Nigeria. Res. J. Environ. Earth Sci., 5(2): 67-77. doi: 10.19026/ Private Conservation Area. NEGRAPATA S.A.C., Lima, Peru rjees.5.5640. Messerli, B., Viviroli, D. and Weingartner, R. 2004. Mountains of the world: Vulnerable water towers for the 21st century. AMBIO J. Hum. American Public Health Association. 1999. Standard Methods for the Environ., 33(13): 29. doi: 10.1007/0044-7447-33.sp13.29. Examination of Water and Wastewater. APHA, AWWA, WPCF, Ministerio de Salud (MINSA). 2010. DS N° 031-2010-SA: Reglamento de Washington. la Calidad del Agua Para Consumo Humano. Aquino, P. 2017. Water Quality in Peru: Challenges and Contributions for Ministerio del Ambiente (MINAM). 2017. DECRETO SUPREMO N° Sustainable Wastewater Management. Law, Environment and Natural 004-2017-MINAM: Aprueban Estandares de Calidad Ambiental (ECA) Resources (DAR), Lima, Peru. Para Agua y Establecen Disposiciones Complementarias. Arellanos, E. 2018. Sustainability Scenarios of the Water Service in the Montoya, C., Loaiza, D., Torres, P., Cruz, C. and Escobar, J. 2011. Effect Tilacancha River Microbasin based on the Estimated Willingness to Pay of the increase in raw water turbidity on the efficiency of conventional with two Econometric Models. Toribio Rodríguez National University purification processes. Rev. EIA, 8(16): 137-48. of Mendoza de Amazonas. Morales, E., Solano, M., Morales, R., Reyes, L., Barrantes, K., Achí, R. and Awoyemi, O., Albert A. and Aderonke, O. 2014. The physicochemical Chacón, L. 2019. Evaluation of the influence of climatic seasonality on the quality of groundwater in relation to surface water pollution in the quality of water for human consumption in a supply system in San José, Majidun area of Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria. Am. J. Water Res., Costa Rica, period 2017-2018. Rev. Costarr. Salud Pública, 28(1): 48-58. 2(5): 126-33. doi: 10.12691/ajwr-2-5-4. Pereyra, C., Humberto, C. 2020. Current and future situation of soil water Baque-Miite, R., Simba-Ochoa, L., González-Ozorio, B., Suatunce, P., erosion in the ACP Tilacancha, Chachapoyas. Toribio Rodríguez Díaz-Ocampo, E. and Cadme-Arevalo, L. 2016. Calidad del agua Mendoza Amaz National Univ. Vol. 23, No. 2, 2024 • Nature Environment and Pollution Technology This publication is licensed under a Creative This publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Commons Attribution 4.0 International License SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF WATER QUALITY FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION 909 Perez, D., Segovia, J., Cabrera, P., Delgado, I. and Martins, M. 2018. Land Seitz, G. 2015. Retribuciones Individuales y Colectivas en el Marco de use and its influence on the pressure and degradation of water resources Conformación del Fondo Virtual del Agua de Tilacancha, pp. 1-30. in hydrographic basins. Rev. Investig. Agraria Ambient., 9(1): 41-57. Seo, M., Lee, H. and Kim, Y. 2019. Relationship between coliform bacteria doi: 10.22490/21456453.2089. and water quality factors at weir stations in the Nakdong River, South Pino, E., Tacora, P., Steenken, A., Alfaro, L., Valle, A., Chávarri, Korea. Water, 11: 1171. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/w11061171. E., Ascencios, D. and Mejía-Marcacuzco, J.A. 2017. Effect of Sepúlveda, Se. 2008. Methodology to Estimate the Level of Sustainable environmental and geological characteristics on water quality in the Development of Territories. IICA, San José, Costa Rica. Caplina River Basin, Tacna, Peru. Tecnol. Cienc. Agua, 8(6):77-99. SUNASS. 2015. Emusap Invertirá s/. 2.8 Millones para Mejorar Servicio doi: 10.24850/j-tyca-2017-06-06. de Agua Potable en Chachapoyas. Prat, N., Rieradevall, M. and Fortuño, V. 2012. Metodología F.E.M para la Thomas, M. 2015. PH, aluminum and environmental factors in soils under Evaluación del Estado Ecológico de los Ríos Mediterráneos, pp. 1-44. forests of the Central Cordillera, Dominican Republic. Rev. Geogr. Ratner, B. 2009. The correlation coefficient: its values range between +1/-1, Venez., 56(1): 59-71. or do they? J. Target Meas. Anal. Mark., 17: 139-42. doi: https://doi. Tognelli, M. F., Lasso, C. A., Bota-sierra, C. A., Jiménez-segura, L. F. and org/10.1057/jt.2009.5. Neil A. Cox. 2016. Conservation and Distribution Status of Freshwater Rodriguez-Alvarez, M.S., Moraña, L.B., Salusso, M.M. and Seghezzo, L. Biodiversity in the Tropical Andes. Gland, Switzerland, p. 199. 2017. Spatial and seasonal characterization of drinking water from United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). 1970. Plan de various sources in a peri-urban town of Salta. Rev. Argent. Microbiol., Reordenamiento N° 03 de 1970. 20: 6 doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ram.2017.03.006. Villamarín, C., Prat, N. and Rieradevall, M. 2014. Caracterización Física, Rojas-Briceño, N., Barboza Castillo, E., Gamarra Torres, O., Oliva, M., Química e Hidromorfológica de los Ríos Altoandinos Tropicales de Leiva Tafur, D., Barrena Gurbillón, M., Corroto, F., Salas López, R. Ecuador y Perú. Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research, 42(5): and Rascón, J. 2020. Morphometric prioritization, fluvial classification, 1072-86. doi: 10.3856/vol42-issue5-fulltext-12. and hydrogeomorphological quality in high Andean livestock micro- Villena, J. 2018. Water quality and sustainable development. Revista watersheds in Northern Peru. Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9(5): 305. https://doi. Peruana de Medicina Experimental y Salud Pública, 35(2): 304. doi: org/10.3390/ijgi9050305 10.17843/rpmesp.2018.352.3719. Salas, R., Barboza, E., Rojas, N., Mamani, J. and Rodriguez, N. 2018. Walter, W. G. 1961. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Deforestation In the Tilacancha private conservation area: water Wastewater. Eleventh edition. Springer, New York. recharge and water supply zone for Chachapoyas. Rev. Investig. Wiegandt, E. 2008. Framing the study of mountain water resources: an Agroprod. Sustentable, 2(3): 54-64. doi: 10.25127/aps.20182.393. introduction. Adv. Glob. Chang. Res., 31: 3-13. doi: 10.1007/978- Salas-Mercado, D., Hermoza-Gutiérrez, M. and Salas-Ávila, D. 2020. 1-4020-6748-8_1. Distribution of heavy metals and metaloids in surface waters and on sediments of the Crucero River, Peru. Water, 37(4): 185-93. doi: ORCID DETAILS OF THE AUTHORS 10.34098/2078-3949.37.4.1. Salinas, J.G. 1979. Adaptación de Plantas a Toxicidades de Aluminio y Jaris Veneros: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6981-4078 Manganeso En Suelos Ácidos. Bogotá. Llandercita Cuchca Ramos: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2996-2786 Salvador, D., Caeiro, M., Serejo, F., Nogueira, P., Neves, R. and Neto, Malluri Goñas: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4972-3467 C. 2020. Monitoring waterborne pathogens in surface and drinking Eli Morales: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8623-3192 waters: Are water treatment plants (WTPs) simultaneously efficient in Erick Auquiñivín-Silva: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9226-9896 the elimination of enteric viruses and fecal indicator bacteria (FIB)? Manuel Oliva: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9670-0970 MDPI: Water, 12(10): 2-17. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102824. Ligia García: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7508-7516 This publication is licensed under a Creative This publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Nature Environment and Pollution Technology • Vol. 23, No. 2, 2024