Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems: Page 1 of 10 doi:10.1017/S1742170514000179
Participatory breeding in the
Peruvian highlands: Opportunities
and challenges for promoting
conservation and sustainable use
of underutilized crops
Gea Galluzzi1*, Rigoberto Estrada2, Vidal Apaza3, Mirihan Gamarra2, Ángel Pérez4,
Gilberto Gamarra5, Ana Altamirano6, Gladys Cáceres3, Víctor Gonza2, Ricardo Sevilla7,
Isabel López Noriega8 and Matthias Jäger1
1Bioversity International, Americas Regional Office, c/o CIAT, km 17 Recta Cali-Palmira, Colombia.
2Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria (INIA), Estación Experimental Andenes, Av. Micaela Bastidas 310-314,
Cusco, Peru.
3Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria (INIA), Estación Experimental Illpa, Rinconada de Salcedo S/N,
468 Puno, Peru.
4Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria (INIA), Estación Experimental Santa Ana, Real N° 507, El Tambo,
Huancayo, Peru.
5Universidad Nacional del Centro del Perú (UNCP), Av. Mariscal Castilla N° 3909, El Tambo, Huancayo,
Peru.
6Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria (INIA), Estación Experimental Canaan, Av. Abancay S/n Fundo
Canaán Bajo, Ayacucho, Peru.
7Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria (INIA), Av. La Molina, 1981, Apartado Postal 2791, Lima, Peru.
8Bioversity International, Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a 00057 Maccarese, Rome, Italy.
*Corresponding author: geagalluzzi@gmail.com
Accepted 9 April 2014 Preliminary Report
Abstract
Underutilized crops tend to harbor high levels of genetic diversity, be maintained on-farm in small-scale
farming systems and be relatively neglected by formal research and development strategies, including breeding
programs. While high genetic variability allows these crops to adapt to marginal environments, inappropriate
management practices and reductions in population sizes in individual farmers’ plots may lead to productivity loss
and poor harvests. This situation further limits their cultivation and use, notwithstanding the potential these
crops may hold for diversification of agricultural systems, food security and market development. Peru hosts a wealth of
native agrobiodiversity, which includes many underutilized crops. To improve their performance and promote
their continued conservation and use, a participatory breeding program was developed on five underutilized crops
of the Peruvian highlands; the breeding approach, based on a combination of evolutionary and participatory
methods, is designed to achieve a balance between yield improvement and maintenance of genetic diversity.
Preliminary results in quinoa and amaranth are encouraging, fostering further engagement of farmers by
increasing availability of quality seed for downstream uses. However, methodological, financial and institutional
issues need to be addressed for the effort to be expanded and upscaled. This paper provides an overall description
of the initiative as well as a discussion on early results obtained in quinoa and amaranth, highlighting those aspects
that make this approach particularly relevant for minor crops and identifying the opportunities and challenges
for the initiative to move forward.
Key words: neglected and underutilized species, agricultural biodiversity, participatory breeding, conservation, food security
© Cambridge University Press 2014
2 G. Galluzzi et al.
Introduction well-organized value chain, consistent demand or market
share. Also, conventional breeding approaches tend to
Improving underutilized crops for sustainable determine a strong narrowing of the genetic variability
agriculture in the final product, seeking for an ideal variety to be
In the context of global economic and climatic change, grown under the more controlled and homogeneous
there is increasing evidence that a new understanding of conditions of commercial agriculture
11. On the contrary,
agricultural production intensification is required, which maintenance of genetic diversity in crop populations is
should embrace issues of sustainability, climate resilience, key to sustain production in the marginal and highly
income generation, food security and sovereignty1. One heterogeneous agricultural systems in which most under-
utilized crops are grown12,13of the major aspects of the discussions around sustainable , while meeting traditional
agriculture focuses on crop diversity2,3. Concerns exist farmers’ preferences, contributing to yield security
about the continued maintenance of a variety of crops and, where appropriate, supporting the development of
in cultivation, the intra-specific diversity within them4,5 value chains based on agricultural biodiversity. Given
and the implications for two global challenges: the need to these considerations, two approaches to plant breeding—
ensure global food security and adapt to climate-induced farmer participation and evolutionary methods—may be
environmental change. In this context, the need to re- particularly relevant in the context of underutilized crop
concile agricultural intensification with maintenance of species.
crop genetic diversity in the production system is emerging The search for approaches suited to breeding for
as a priority. It is thus argued that within the called-for marginal areas and low-input farming systems started 50
new paradigm of agricultural intensi cation6,7fi an import- years ago
14 and led to the development of the evolutionary
14,15
ant, albeit not exclusive focus should be placed on a wider plant breeding method . In this approach, landraces of
range of ‘minor’ crop species, for their relevance in small- different evolutionary origins are assembled and recom-
scale farming systems and marginal agro-ecologies, where bined to enhance spontaneous or facilitated (through
highly specialized commodity-based production models manual crosses) cross-pollination, with the resulting
do not succeed. mixtures known as composite populations. Over several
One of the common features of underutilized crops is generations, the progenies are propagated in bulk and
the relative lack of improved varieties and the prevalence subjected to natural and human selection under various
ecological conditions. In experiments with barley14–16of diverse landrace material grown in farmers’ fields, a and
17,18
trend which is more or less pronounced depending on wheat composite varieties have been found superior
the species and context. Although landraces are best to leading high-yielding commercial varieties because they
adapted to locally prevailing and frequently marginal maintain a greater degree of genetic diversity which allows
and low-input growing conditions, they often suffer them to perform better under various environmental
from poor yields from inbreeding depression due to conditions.
population fragmentation in smallholdings and/or to Participatory plant breeding (PPB) is a long-standing
the lack of appropriate seed management and conser- concept and framework which has been applied in a
vation practices8. This in turn determines a general loss number of developed and developing countries over the
19
of appreciation of landrace material and its potential. past 20 years . It combines modern science with local
On the other hand, improved varieties are often un- knowledge, brings plant breeding back into farmers’
available or expensive and thus inaccessible to subsistence hands and encourages a return to crop diversity
20. PPB
producers and poorest groups; in addition, they don’t is generally undertaken with the aim of generating im-
always respond to the agro-ecological challenges of proved and adapted varieties for the smallholder, low-
marginal areas nor farmers’ preferences for their tra- input agricultural systems; in this context and depending
ditional uses. Therefore, improving the genetic basis of on the reproductive biology of the species, methods such
locally relevant underutilized crops and achieving re- as mass selection or evolutionary breeding are usually
latively small increases in yields could greatly boost food employed. These tend to generate more heterogeneous
production, income-generating opportunities and liveli- varieties compared to those used in commercial agri-
hoods9 in vulnerable areas. It can pave the way for culture, where genetic uniformity is valued or even re-
downstream developments, such as quality seed multi- quired to enable formal registration or plant variety
plication and dissemination among farmers and, where protection. As a result, the resilience and adaptation of
appropriate, value chain development based on local materials from these breeding approaches tend to be
agricultural biodiversity. greater than those of varieties produced for optimal,
controlled and high-input conditions of industrialized
Breeding approaches for underutilized crops agriculture
20. Furthermore, the involvement of farmers in
the early stages of the breeding activity leads to greater
Worldwide, investments in capacities and funds for adoption rates21. To our knowledge, no documented
public breeding programs have been declining10, while experiences of these approaches with underutilized crops
the private sector shows limited interest in crops without a exist in Peru.
Participatory breeding in the Peruvian highlands 3
The ‘Conservation Breeding’ Experience in areas, compared with those of major Peruvian staple
the Peruvian highlands crops, are shown in Table 1. The breeding methodology
described in the following section is applicable to all
Background and origins of the initiative target crops, but has been completed only in quinoa and
amaranth and early results will be described for these two
Peru is known as one of the world’s ten ‘mega-diverse’ species only.
countries, for its rich diversity in ecosystems, species,
genetic resources and associated cultures. Peru’s bio-
diversity is one of the pillars of its national economy, Designing the methodology
directly sustaining a large part of the population, playing Figure 1 summarizes the steps which are common to the
an important role in culture, science and technology, and breeding process of every target species. The initial col-
providing essential environmental services in terms of lecting phase was designed so as to capture most of the
soil fertility, air quality and water supply22. The country genetic diversity available for a given crop, including
is an important centre of domestication and diversity those alleles which occur at low frequency and are related
for many crops23,24; some of these have acquired global to important adaptive traits (e.g., drought or cold
relevance (e.g., the potato) while others, such as Andean tolerance); these are particularly important for the
grains, tubers and fruit species, have remained more continued and improved adaptation of these underutilized
locally distributed and relatively underutilized25. species to their growth environments. Some authors re-
The UN Year of Biodiversity in 2010 significantly con- commend choosing a sample size capable of capturing,
tributed to placing conservation and use of the country’s with at least a 95% probability, all alleles occurring at a
biological heritage in the spotlight; among other initia- frequency greater than 0.05. This would imply the
tives, the Ministries of Environment and Agriculture, collection and bulking of seeds from 30 randomly chosen
the National Agricultural Research Institute (INIA) individuals in a fully outbreeding sexual species, or from
and Bioversity International organized the forum 59 individuals in a self-fertilizing species32. Other authors
‘Aprovechando la Agrobiodiversidad del Perú’ (‘Making raise the number to 100 plants for inbreeding species and
the most of Peruvian Agrobiodiversity’) to discuss 50 for outcrossers33. Guided by the effort to capture low-
opportunities and practical steps forward. The forum frequency adaptive alleles, and given the predominantly
played a significant catalytic role in designing and/or selfing nature of the target crops, seeds from at least 20
consolidating initiatives, including the formalization of plants of each species were collected at different sites
agrobiodiversity conservation areas, the establishment within each target region. It was generally impossible to
of inventories of local crops and landraces as a measure collect seed from more than 20 plants at each collecting
to prevent their ‘misappropriation’ and other actions site, because of the small size of the surveyed fields; ad-
aimed at fostering increased use of native agricultural bio- ditional samples were obtained as grain from local
diversity26. In the forum, a proposal was also put forward markets and seed storage facilities of individual farmers
to test the application of an evolutionary and participa- after harvest, reaching a minimum total of 100 sampled
tory breeding method which had been successfully applied plants in each target region. It is assumed that the grain
inmaize27,28 on a number of minor crops in fourmarginal, from individual farmers’ stocks or from the lots they sell
mountain regions of the country (Ayacucho, Cusco, Junín on local markets represents a randommixture of all plants
and Puno). The method combines evolutionary and par- harvested that year.
ticipatory approaches, and was named ‘conservation Upon collecting and in collaboration with farmers,
breeding’ to highlight the importance it places on striking local variety names, preferences and uses were recorded.
a balance between improvements in landrace perfor- Samples were grouped into racial groups (i.e., landraces)
mance and maintenance of genetic diversity. Through the based on the most notable morphological and agronomic
fundamental initial steps of germplasm collection and characters (such as shape of the inflorescence, length of the
recombination, followed by farmer-led selection, the growth cycle, color and shape of the grain), leading to a
method strives to restore and maintain a set of relatively preliminary racial classification. The collection was sown
diverse (in terms of intra-specific diversity), productive in INIA’s experimental stations located in the regions of
and adaptable ‘varieties’ available to farmers. Five crops collecting and, upon maturity, plants were again mor-
were prioritized for an initial pilot phase of the program, phologically characterized to either confirm and com-
the choice being based on a combined assessment of the plete the preliminary landrace identification or re-define
most relevant crops in the local farming systems, their groups. Equal numbers of seeds (around 100) from each
potential for strengthening local food security and identified group were used to produce the composite
livelihoods and the existence of previous or on-going populations (one for each landrace group), which were
research in INIA’s decentralized stations. The prioritized sown in separate plots to be subjected to subsequent cycles
crops for this initial testing of the method include Andean of spontaneous recombination and selection. While the
grains and legumes whose characteristics are briefly target species are described as predominantly inbreeding,
explained in Box 1. Statistical data about their cultivation higher than expected levels of cross-pollination have been
4 G. Galluzzi et al.
Box 1. Underutilized crops incorporated in conservative breeding
Pseudocereals: Andean grains
Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus) is a hardy plant whose grains are high in proteins (12–16%) rich in essential
amino acids such as lysine. It is high in calcium and phosphorus too. Unlike beans or true cereals, amaranth has
neither hulls nor the high saponine content which increases processing times in quinoa. The grain can be consumed
either as it is, popped or transformed into flour. The residues are traditionally used as fodder and the inflorescences
for ornamental purposes25.
Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) is the least known of the Andean grains. It is not fully domesticated and it is
characterized by high protein content (15–19%), particularly rich in sulfur-containing amino acids. Seed shattering is
amajor production problem, together with the low average yields that, however, can be significantly improved (up to
700kgha−1) with appropriate management strategies29. According to local knowledge, cañihua possesses medicinal
properties against dysentery and altitude sickness, because of its high iron content25.
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) is the best known Andean grain; as the others, it is rich in high-quality proteins.
The grain has a coating of bitter-tasting saponins, making processing long and time-consuming. This bitterness has
beneficial effects during cultivation, protecting the crop from pests and birds. Throughout the history of indigenous
Andean people, it has been known as the ‘mother grain’ because of its importance and nutritional value30. Since the
1990s, quinoa has found an important niche in US and European markets and the growing demand and high prices
on international markets have determined a strong expansion of the production, especially in Peru and Bolivia.
Legumes
Popping beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) are important in the diet of the Andean rural population, as well as being used
in baking and confectionery. Importantly for poor households, popping beans require little energy for cooking, since
the seed is roasted, not boiled. Morphologically these beans, locally known as ñuñas, are undistinguishable from
other varieties but their grains have the unique capacity to burst upon toasting. The resulting popped product is soft
and palatable. The combination of factors determining the popping capacity is unknown; however, the shape of the
seed, the elasticity of its peel and the quantity and quality of the starch play a role31.
Andean lupin (Lupinus mutabilis) is a multipurpose crop with a high nutritional value, similar to that of soybean,
containing up to 40% protein and 16% fat in the fresh grain. Lupins contain alkaloids which confer tolerance to
many parasites and pests but also make processing for human consumption longer and more laborious, partially
explaining its underutilization. Besides its use as food, it contributes to soil fertility and is adapted to a wide range of
climatic conditions; its residues, thanks to their high cellulose content, are used as a fuel25.
reported in the literature or observed by local experts and previous cycle. At each harvest, 20% of best-performing
have been attributed to increased pollinators’ frequency plants were selected and their progeny were subjected to
or variability of environmental conditions34–38. This led the next cycle; the new pollinating population was made
to the decision to test on these species an approach based up of the mixture of seeds from the best-performing
on spontaneous recombination, which was developed individuals (i.e., the gradually improved composite)
for outcrossing maize28, expecting less spectacular but identified in the latest cycle, and so on. The yearly genetic
still potentially significant yield gains, especially over the gain was measured by comparison with the original
long term. At flowering, any damaged or diseased composite obtained in the first cycle.
inflorescence was eliminated, in order to foster recombi- While inputs from INIA scientists mostly contributed
nation only among healthy individuals; at harvest time to the initial grouping of the collected material in com-
seed was selected from the most representative plants posite populations and to the dissemination of improved
of the composite, i.e., those which best expressed the seed selection and reproduction practices, farmers are the
key morphological traits of their racial group. The seeds key actors in identifying the best-performing plants
from the selected plants were made available to interested for traits of their interest during the selection process
farmers during a specially organized open house event and in reproducing and making available the seed to
at the experimental stations. Farmers sowed the seeds in other cultivators for subsequent cycles. Farmers are being
their own fields at the next cropping season and the first assisted and trained in best practices for seed selection
cycle of farmer-led recombination and selection was and storage, in order to make high-quality seed of the
started on the progeny. The plants were sown in farmers’ gradually improved composites available in the com-
plots, flanked by a pollinating population consisting of a munity. Nutritional characterization of the materials
mixture of seeds (in equal number) from the best- included in the breeding effort was carried out by INIA
performing plants identified within the composite in the specialists, in order to evaluate the potential contribution
Participatory breeding in the Peruvian highlands 5
Table 1. Cultivation areas of the five target crops and comparison with three major Peruvian staples.
Area compared Area compared Area compared
Crop Common name Scientific name Area (ha)1 to maize (%) to potato (%) to rice (%)
Amaranth Kiwicha, Achita, Amaranthus caudatus 1173 0.25 0.38 0.49
Amaranto
Canihua Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule 5424 1.15 1.76 2.27
Quinoa Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa 29,639 6.29 9.60 12.40
Popping bean Frijol ñuña Phaseolus vulgaris 1164 0.25 0.38 0.49
Andean lupin Tarwi, Chocho Lupinus mutabilis 7310 1.55 2.37 3.06
Maize Maíz Zea mays 471,023
Rice Arroz Oryza sativa 308,668
Potato Papa Solanum tuberosum 239,094
1 Average cultivation area over 2008–2011 (source: Peruvian Ministry of Agriculture, at http://frenteweb.minag.gob.pe/sisca/?
mod=consulta_cult).
Table 2. Samples collected for each target species and used for
establishing the composite populations (results were unavailable
for cañihua, a species for which the process is still in its early
stages).
Number of Number of
samples composites
Crop collected established
Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus) 266 12
Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) 80 NA
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) 280 13
Popping bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) 235 5
Andean lupin (Lupinus mutabilis) 79 4
the collection, characterization and evaluation of crop
genetic resources are key steps for setting a baseline of
their on-farm conservation status in an eco-geographical
Figure 1. The steps of the breeding cycle. region, based on which periodic assessments and moni-
toring of genetic erosion can be carried out39.
Based on morphological characterization, the samples
of these crops to local diets and thus reinforce the message were grouped into composite populations: 66 composites
on the importance of their continued conservation were formed in quinoa, five in cañihua, 27 in amaranth,
through improved management and use. 19 in Andean lupin and 16 in popping bean. The
generation and management of composite populations,
given their potential to serve as ‘reservoirs of genetic
Early Results, Implications for adaptability’40,41, is considered an effective mean of
Conservation and use of Underutilized on-farm maintenance of plant genetic resources, while
Species, and Ways Forward striving for gradual improvements in performance. A
composite population encloses much more diversity than
During the initial collecting phase, a total of 940 any single farmer’s population and thus enables selection
samples were collected, distributed between target to be more effective. Across quinoa and amaranth com-
species as described in Table 2. Quinoa (Chenopodium posites, consistent yield improvements were observed over
quinoa), amaranth (Amarantus caudatus) and cañihua two or three (depending on the composite and locality)
(Chenopodium pallidicaule) were classified based on traits recombination cycles. Quinoa landraces ‘Negras’ and
such as panicle shape, color and architecture, grain color, ‘Chullpi’ in the Puno region experienced a gain of 17.35%
stem and leaf color. The two legume species (Phaseolus and 7.25%, respectively, after three cycles, when com-
vulgaris and Lupinus mutabilis) were characterized based pared to the average yields of the original composite. The
on grain color and length of the growth cycle. In addition yield gain after two years of 24 quinoa composites
to generating the basic material for the breeding process, and of 14 amaranth composites tested in Ayacucho was
6 G. Galluzzi et al.
8.75% and 8.17%, respectively. Several studies have
shown positive yield results either after controlled crossing
for self-pollinating species or open pollination among
populations of outcrossing species. Recombination within
composite populations of maize brings dramatic reduc-
tions in inbreeding depression and yield increases42;
positive yield results have been observed in predominantly
inbreeding crops such as lentils, wheat and pearl
millet43–45 through controlled crosses. In the preliminary
results described here, the observed yield gain in primarily
self-pollinating species may be due to higher than ex-
pected levels of outcrossing and thus genetic recombi-
nation or to agronomic benefits of using crop mixtures.
We have already discussed the possibly higher than ex-
pected rates of recombination in the species under
consideration here, something that has been observed in
other cereal species and particularly under variable
environmental conditions46–48. Cultivar mixtures are a
type of within-field diversification which has been used
particularly in the context of disease management and
yield improvement49–50.Wheat, barley and rice are
planted in intraspecific mixtures to prevent disease
outbreaks and spread in the USA51, Germany52 and
China53. In reviews of studies about crop mixtures of
mostly grains and legumes, yields were often slightly
greater than the mean of the component cultivars54–55,
while results are more mixed in important horticultural
species as the tomato56. It has also been observed that
yield stability of mixtures in cereals can exceed that of
individual components across a range of soil types57.
Further selection cycles and longer-term statistical
analyses are needed to confirm the stability over time of
these results, to determine the drivers of the increases in
yield and to extend the experience to the other priority
crops. Evolutionary breeding is based upon long time
frames (up to 30 generations) for validating the adap-
tation and yield advantages of the composite popu-
lations58 and thus evaluate the capacity of the genetic
diversity they enclose to consistently improve food se-
curity and livelihoods. In the future, the use of controlled
crosses among well-characterized parents carrying known
desired traits could be introduced to further enhance
recombination in partially or predominantly inbreeding
species; molecular characterization of the composites, for
example through microsatellite markers, could shed light
on the heterozygosity level of the populations and thus
on the percentage of cross-pollination, which in turn
can allow a decision on the opportunity of introducing
controlled crosses in the breeding strategy.
Early evaluations of the composites’ nutritional content
(Table 3) confirm the high nutritional value already
observed in Andean grains59–60, particularly in terms
of content of protein, fat and essential minerals. Protein
content of the quinoa materials under study (13.93g/100g
dry matter) was similar to previously reported values,
whereas that of the amaranth composites (13.12g/100g
dry matter) was lower than that previously observed59
Table 3. Nutritional content of selected composites in quinoa and amaranth, and averages for each species.
Region of Water Protein Carbohydrates Energy Dietary fiber Ash Fat matter Vitamin Calcium Iron
collection Crop Composite name (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) (kcal/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) C (mg/100g) (mg/100g)
Sta Ana Quinoa B 10.6 11.1 70.0 374.8 2.3 2.7 5.6 0.5 33.5 3.6
Sta Ana Quinoa A 9.5 14.5 67.2 379.0 2.9 3.0 5.8 0.5 33.6 3.5
Canaan Quinoa CQA-037 AMARILLO 9.9 16.4 65.1 373.7 3.0 3.3 5.3 0.0 70.0 6.0
Canaan Quinoa CQA-048-2 BLANCO 9.3 11.3 69.0 384.2 3.7 3.4 7.0 0.5 70.5 5.7
Illpa Quinoa CHULLPI 6.9 12.3 71.4 393.3 3.5 2.9 6.5 0.5 107.0 10.5
Illpa Quinoa BLANCO GRANO 8.0 15.9 68.6 384.8 3.5 2.3 5.2 0.5 100.0 9.4
GRANDE
Illpa Quinoa NEGRA 8.3 16.0 68.2 379.1 5.9 2.8 4.7 0.5 110.0 8.6
Quinoa averages 8.9 13.9 68.5 381.3 3.5 2.9 5.7 0.4 74.9 6.7
Canaan Amaranth CKA-089-3 7.6 12.2 71.4 388.4 4.2 2.8 6.0 0.3 170.0 6.4
Canaan Amaranth CKA-009-3 PANOJA 9.1 11.2 68.5 391.7 4.0 3.1 8.1 0.3 133.0 11.7
GUINDA
Canaan Amaranth CKA.029-2 BLANCA 9.0 11.0 66.9 405.2 3.8 2.7 10.4 0.3 120.0 6.1
DECUMBENTE
Andenes Amaranth ANDAHUAYLAS C 9.0 14.6 69.3 373.4 4.5 2.9 4.2 0.3 109.5 7.0
Andenes Amaranth ANDAHUAYLAS A 7.5 15.1 68.7 390.1 3.5 2.6 6.1 0.3 138.6 8.3
Andenes Amaranth ANDAHUAYLAS B 8.8 14.6 68.3 381.1 4.0 2.8 5.5 0.3 90.1 6.9
Amaranth averages 8.5 13.1 68.8 388.3 4.0 2.8 6.7 0.3 126.9 7.7
Participatory breeding in the Peruvian highlands 7
but still considerably higher than the content of other of local crop productivity and competitiveness in
major staple crops61. Fat content was higher than close collaboration with smallholders may be an effective
that described in other studies59–60, being on average long-term strategy to sustain national food security,
5.73g/100g in quinoa and 6.72g/100g in amaranth. In sovereignty and health. In this direction, the described
terms of minerals, quinoa samples contained an average combination of participatory and evolutionary breeding
of 74.94mg/100g calcium and 6.67mg/100g iron, approaches is a particularly interesting way forward to
while amaranth contained an average of 126.87mg/100g rescuing and promoting the value of native, relatively
calcium and 7.73mg/100g iron. The content of these two underutilized crops.
minerals is admittedly lower than that reported for other However, many challenges lie ahead in order to move
quinoa and amaranth materials, possibly due to natural the process forward, starting with validating and improv-
variability among different sample sets, but still sign- ing the methodology across the different target crops.
ificantly higher than the averages described for other Not only does the characterization and selection process
major cereals, such as wheat and rice61. need to be continued over a number of years, but also new
The farmer-based multiplication of the materials at tools, such as molecular characterization of the samples
each selection cycle is an important contribution to and the possible introduction of controlled crosses,
strengthening informal or local seed systems and fostering should be explored. Distribution of the diverse, improved
diffusion of gradually improved materials, in turn up- materials through some innovative form of variety regis-
scaling the impact of the breeding process on food security tration can open opportunities to develop agrobio-
and biodiversity conservation9. However, one of the diversity-based value chains65 grounded on specific traits
major technical and institutional bottlenecks down- of interest carried by each landrace. Although concerns
stream of most processes of participatory plant breeding have been raised on the appropriateness of market
resides in the phases of quality assurance and dissemi- mechanisms alone as means to promote underutilized
nation of improved seed beyond the immediate par- species, it cannot be denied that value chain development
ticipants to the breeding program. As in most countries, and access to markets of agricultural products provide
formal procedures for varietal release, registration and opportunities for farmers to increase their income, and
seed multiplication in Peru are regulated by the seed law62 play an important role in poverty reduction66.
and overseen by a government-appointed committee Finally, a wealth of underutilized species exist in
(Comité Gubernamental de Semillas). Registration is Peru, most of which with significant potential. While the
based on scientific reports about performance, distinc- choice of five pilot species fell on relatively better-known
tiveness, uniformity, stability and quality of the new crops, for which technical expertise and organized farmer
variety. Such a system overlooks the reality of small-scale groups already existed, expanding and upscaling the
farmers who still provide most of the seeds for agricultural application of conservation breeding will require an
production through the informal system, i.e., without any agreed process for designing participatory prioritization
certification or registration. If even for an important staple strategies in each region, as well as consistent, long-term
such as potato, national data in Peru show that the formal funding. Furthermore, breeding for improved varieties
system is able to provide seed for only 2% of the national is only one element of efforts to enhance crop production;
production63, its limitations are even greater for varieties it should be accompanied by initiatives to improve
of underutilized crops. Encouragingly, in Peru a space agronomic practices and technologies for the cultivation
exists for designing such mechanisms under the current of these crops, liaising with the ongoing crop-based
seed law, which contemplates a ‘common seed’ category, program in place within the national agricultural research
exempt from the official certification scheme but still system.
required to comply with minimum quality standards. The initiative described here and its preliminary results
If the breeding effort is improved and expanded further, are only a step, albeit a crucial one, towards improved
schemes for certification and distribution of local genetic conservation and sustainable use of underutilized genetic
materials will have to be explored, requiring a better resources in the framework of agricultural development,
understanding of seed registration issues, local property food security and health. Institutional support and multi-
rights, ownership and benefits associated with the appli- disciplinary linkages across sectors and at local to
cation of local knowledge, in order to recognize and national levels will be essential to embed this initiative in
provide incentives for the continued involvement of long-term strategies, making it sustainable over time.
farmers as essential actors in this process.
Acknowledgments. The authors wish to recognize the funda-
Conclusions mental contribution of farmers to the efforts described in
the present article, as well as to thank the staff from
Given Peru’s rich agricultural biodiversity and the per- INIA’s decentralized stations for their technical inputs to the
initiative. Many thanks to John Miles (CIAT) and Jan Engels
sistence of pockets of poverty and malnutrition, especially (Bioversity International) for their valuable comments on the
in rural areas64, investing in sustainable improvements manuscript.
8 G. Galluzzi et al.
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